抽象的论证为我们提供了逐步和粪便语义等方法，其中在其他参数潜在攻击后评估争论。其中一些方法可以将参数的内在优点作为输入，由此调制攻击之间的攻击效果。来自抽象的论证，这些方法只关注参数之间的关系而不是在争论本身的结构之间。在结构性论证中，通过从场所开始的推理规则来构建参数的方式，被考虑在考虑。在本文中，我们基于用于形成所述论点的处所和推理规则的优势，研究了分配其特征其内在力量的方法。我们首先定义一组原则，这些原则是强度分配方法可能满足的属性。然后，我们提出了两种这样的方法并分析了他们满足的原则。最后，我们提出了一种创建新颖强度分配方法的广义系统，并与该系统的属性与拟议原则交谈。

The clinical interest is often to measure the volume of a structure, which is typically derived from a segmentation. In order to evaluate and compare segmentation methods, the similarity between a segmentation and a predefined ground truth is measured using popular discrete metrics, such as the Dice score. Recent segmentation methods use a differentiable surrogate metric, such as soft Dice, as part of the loss function during the learning phase. In this work, we first briefly describe how to derive volume estimates from a segmentation that is, potentially, inherently uncertain or ambiguous. This is followed by a theoretical analysis and an experimental validation linking the inherent uncertainty to common loss functions for training CNNs, namely cross-entropy and soft Dice. We find that, even though soft Dice optimization leads to an improved performance with respect to the Dice score and other measures, it may introduce a volume bias for tasks with high inherent uncertainty. These findings indicate some of the method's clinical limitations and suggest doing a closer ad-hoc volume analysis with an optional re-calibration step.

利用基于文本的节点属性的节点分类具有许多真实的应用程序，从学术引用图中的纸张主题到社交媒体网络中用户特征的分类范围。最新的节点分类框架（例如Giant）使用两阶段管道：首先嵌入图节点的文本属性，然后将所得嵌入的嵌入到节点分类模型中。在本文中，我们消除了这两个阶段，而是开发了建立在巨人基于端到端巨型（E2EG）的端到端节点分类模型。在我们的方法中，主体和辅助分类目标的串联利用导致了更强大的模型，从而使BERT主链可以切换为蒸馏编码器，其参数数量减少了25％-40％。此外，模型的端到端性质提高了易用性，因为它避免了链接多个模型进行节点分类的需求。与OGBN-ARXIV和OGBN产品数据集的巨型+MLP基线相比，我们的模型能够在换电环境（+0.5％）中获得稍好的精度，同时将模型培训时间最多减少40％。我们的模型也适用于电感设置，优于巨型 +MLP高达 +2.23％。

语言模型既展示了定量的改进，又展示了新的定性功能，随着规模的增加。尽管它们具有潜在的变革性影响，但这些新能力的特征却很差。为了为未来的研究提供信息，为破坏性的新模型能力做准备，并改善社会有害的效果，至关重要的是，我们必须了解目前和近乎未来的能力和语言模型的局限性。为了应对这一挑战，我们介绍了超越模仿游戏基准（Big Bench）。 Big Bench目前由204个任务组成，由132家机构的442位作者贡献。任务主题是多样的，从语言学，儿童发展，数学，常识性推理，生物学，物理学，社会偏见，软件开发等等。 Big-Bench专注于被认为超出当前语言模型的功能的任务。我们评估了OpenAI的GPT型号，Google内部密集变压器体系结构和大型基础上的开关稀疏变压器的行为，跨越了数百万到数十亿个参数。此外，一个人类专家评估者团队执行了所有任务，以提供强大的基准。研究结果包括：模型性能和校准都随规模改善，但绝对的术语（以及与评估者的性能相比）；在模型类中的性能非常相似，尽管带有稀疏性。逐渐和预测的任务通常涉及大量知识或记忆成分，而在临界规模上表现出“突破性”行为的任务通常涉及多个步骤或组成部分或脆性指标；社交偏见通常会随着含糊不清的环境而随着规模而增加，但这可以通过提示来改善。

最近关于Covid-19的研究表明，CT成像提供了评估疾病进展和协助诊断的有用信息，以及帮助理解疾病。有越来越多的研究，建议使用深度学习来使用胸部CT扫描提供快速准确地定量Covid-19。兴趣的主要任务是胸部CT扫描的肺和肺病变的自动分割，确认或疑似Covid-19患者。在这项研究中，我们使用多中心数据集比较12个深度学习算法，包括开源和内部开发的算法。结果表明，合并不同的方法可以提高肺部分割，二元病变分割和多种子病变分割的总体测试集性能，从而分别为0.982,0.724和0.469的平均骰子分别。将得到的二元病变分段为91.3ml的平均绝对体积误差。通常，区分不同病变类型的任务更加困难，分别具有152mL的平均绝对体积差，分别为整合和磨碎玻璃不透明度为0.369和0.523的平均骰子分数。所有方法都以平均体积误差进行二元病变分割，该分段优于人类评估者的视觉评估，表明这些方法足以用于临床实践中使用的大规模评估。

The success of neural networks builds to a large extent on their ability to create internal knowledge representations from real-world high-dimensional data, such as images, sound, or text. Approaches to extract and present these representations, in order to explain the neural network's decisions, is an active and multifaceted research field. To gain a deeper understanding of a central aspect of this field, we have performed a targeted review focusing on research that aims to associate internal representations with human understandable concepts. In doing this, we added a perspective on the existing research by using primarily deductive nomological explanations as a proposed taxonomy. We find this taxonomy and theories of causality, useful for understanding what can be expected, and not expected, from neural network explanations. The analysis additionally uncovers an ambiguity in the reviewed literature related to the goal of model explainability; is it understanding the ML model or, is it actionable explanations useful in the deployment domain?

Many problems in machine learning involve bilevel optimization (BLO), including hyperparameter optimization, meta-learning, and dataset distillation. Bilevel problems consist of two nested sub-problems, called the outer and inner problems, respectively. In practice, often at least one of these sub-problems is overparameterized. In this case, there are many ways to choose among optima that achieve equivalent objective values. Inspired by recent studies of the implicit bias induced by optimization algorithms in single-level optimization, we investigate the implicit bias of gradient-based algorithms for bilevel optimization. We delineate two standard BLO methods -- cold-start and warm-start -- and show that the converged solution or long-run behavior depends to a large degree on these and other algorithmic choices, such as the hypergradient approximation. We also show that the inner solutions obtained by warm-start BLO can encode a surprising amount of information about the outer objective, even when the outer parameters are low-dimensional. We believe that implicit bias deserves as central a role in the study of bilevel optimization as it has attained in the study of single-level neural net optimization.

An expansion of aberrant brain cells is referred to as a brain tumor. The brain's architecture is extremely intricate, with several regions controlling various nervous system processes. Any portion of the brain or skull can develop a brain tumor, including the brain's protective coating, the base of the skull, the brainstem, the sinuses, the nasal cavity, and many other places. Over the past ten years, numerous developments in the field of computer-aided brain tumor diagnosis have been made. Recently, instance segmentation has attracted a lot of interest in numerous computer vision applications. It seeks to assign various IDs to various scene objects, even if they are members of the same class. Typically, a two-stage pipeline is used to perform instance segmentation. This study shows brain cancer segmentation using YOLOv5. Yolo takes dataset as picture format and corresponding text file. You Only Look Once (YOLO) is a viral and widely used algorithm. YOLO is famous for its object recognition properties. You Only Look Once (YOLO) is a popular algorithm that has gone viral. YOLO is well known for its ability to identify objects. YOLO V2, V3, V4, and V5 are some of the YOLO latest versions that experts have published in recent years. Early brain tumor detection is one of the most important jobs that neurologists and radiologists have. However, it can be difficult and error-prone to manually identify and segment brain tumors from Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) data. For making an early diagnosis of the condition, an automated brain tumor detection system is necessary. The model of the research paper has three classes. They are respectively Meningioma, Pituitary, Glioma. The results show that, our model achieves competitive accuracy, in terms of runtime usage of M2 10 core GPU.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive capabilities in natural language understanding and generation, but the quality bar for medical and clinical applications is high. Today, attempts to assess models' clinical knowledge typically rely on automated evaluations on limited benchmarks. There is no standard to evaluate model predictions and reasoning across a breadth of tasks. To address this, we present MultiMedQA, a benchmark combining six existing open question answering datasets spanning professional medical exams, research, and consumer queries; and HealthSearchQA, a new free-response dataset of medical questions searched online. We propose a framework for human evaluation of model answers along multiple axes including factuality, precision, possible harm, and bias. In addition, we evaluate PaLM (a 540-billion parameter LLM) and its instruction-tuned variant, Flan-PaLM, on MultiMedQA. Using a combination of prompting strategies, Flan-PaLM achieves state-of-the-art accuracy on every MultiMedQA multiple-choice dataset (MedQA, MedMCQA, PubMedQA, MMLU clinical topics), including 67.6% accuracy on MedQA (US Medical License Exam questions), surpassing prior state-of-the-art by over 17%. However, human evaluation reveals key gaps in Flan-PaLM responses. To resolve this we introduce instruction prompt tuning, a parameter-efficient approach for aligning LLMs to new domains using a few exemplars. The resulting model, Med-PaLM, performs encouragingly, but remains inferior to clinicians. We show that comprehension, recall of knowledge, and medical reasoning improve with model scale and instruction prompt tuning, suggesting the potential utility of LLMs in medicine. Our human evaluations reveal important limitations of today's models, reinforcing the importance of both evaluation frameworks and method development in creating safe, helpful LLM models for clinical applications.

Migraine is a high-prevalence and disabling neurological disorder. However, information migraine management in real-world settings could be limited to traditional health information sources. In this paper, we (i) verify that there is substantial migraine-related chatter available on social media (Twitter and Reddit), self-reported by migraine sufferers; (ii) develop a platform-independent text classification system for automatically detecting self-reported migraine-related posts, and (iii) conduct analyses of the self-reported posts to assess the utility of social media for studying this problem. We manually annotated 5750 Twitter posts and 302 Reddit posts. Our system achieved an F1 score of 0.90 on Twitter and 0.93 on Reddit. Analysis of information posted by our 'migraine cohort' revealed the presence of a plethora of relevant information about migraine therapies and patient sentiments associated with them. Our study forms the foundation for conducting an in-depth analysis of migraine-related information using social media data.